Water Justice and Urban Inequality in Ghana: Institutional and Spatial Exclusion in Greater Accra
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Water Justice and Urban Inequality in Ghana: Institutional and Spatial Exclusion in Greater Accra

Jie Zhao 1*
1 Cornell University
*Corresponding author: jz2352@cornell.edu
Published on 4 December 2025
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LNEP Vol.116
ISSN (Print): 2753-7056
ISSN (Online): 2753-7048
ISBN (Print): 978-1-80590-535-6
ISBN (Online): 978-1-80590-536-3
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Abstract

This paper examines inequities in urban water governance in the Greater Accra Region of Ghana to identify patterns where institutional fragmentation and spatial marginalization intersect, creating unequal access to affordable and safe water. Using a multi-level analytical framework, the study explores the micro-level dynamics of “de-publicization,” in which water is commodified rather than recognized as a citizen’s entitlement; the meso-level challenges of regulatory duplication and blurred accountability among central institutions; and the macro-level tensions between global efficiency-oriented frameworks and local implementation capacities. Through an analysis of policy documents, institutional data, and related research, the study finds that unequal access to water resources stems from exclusion based on citizenship status, inadequate empowerment of local governance, and an external aid logic centered on cost recovery. It proposes integrated reforms that bridge national, regional, and global governance levels to advance progress toward Sustainable Development Goal 6 in a socially inclusive manner.

Keywords:

Water justice, Urban inequality, Institutional exclusion, Spatial marginalization, Ghana

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Zhao,J. (2025). Water Justice and Urban Inequality in Ghana: Institutional and Spatial Exclusion in Greater Accra. Lecture Notes in Education Psychology and Public Media,116,40-48.

References

[1]. Zwarteveen, M., & Boelens, R. (2014). Defining, researching and struggling for water justice: Some conceptual building blocks for research and action. Water International, 39(2), 143–158. https: //doi.org/10.1080/02508060.2014.891168

[2]. United Nations. (2010). The human right to water and sanitation (Resolution A/RES/64/292). United Nations General Assembly.

[3]. United Nations. (2018). Sustainable Development Goal 6 Synthesis Report 2018 on Water and Sanitation. United Nations.

[4]. Jaglin, S. (2022). Water resources and socio-spatial inequalities in Sub-Saharan Africa: Legacies, clues and research agenda. In Jaglin, S., & Zérah, M.-H. (Eds.), Undisciplined Environments: Spaces, Politics and Practices in the Global South (pp. 157–176). Springer. https: //doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-60502-4_8

[5]. Chitonge, H., Mokoena, A., Kongo, M. (2020). Water and Sanitation Inequality in Africa: Challenges for SDG 6. In: Ramutsindela, M., Mickler, D. (eds) Africa and the Sustainable Development Goals. Sustainable Development Goals Series. Springer, Cham. https: //doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-14857-7_20

[6]. Yalew, S. G., Kwakkel, J., & Doorn, N. (2021). Distributive justice and sustainability goals in transboundary rivers: Case of the Nile Basin. Frontiers in Environmental Science, 8, Article 590954. https: //doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2020.590954

[7]. Rossi, Maurizio, and Marina Fischer-Kowalski. Dimensions of Inequality in Urban and Rural Water Use and Water Accessibility in Sub-Saharan Africa. Sustainability 12.2 (2020): 574. https: //doi.org/10.3390/su12020574

[8]. Pullan, R. L., Freeman, M. C., Gething, P. W., & Brooker, S. J. (2014). Geographical inequalities in use of improved drinking water supply and sanitation across sub-Saharan Africa: Mapping and spatial analysis of cross-sectional survey data. PLOS Medicine, 11(4), e1001626. https: //doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1001626

[9]. Enqvist, J., Ziervogel, G., Metelerkamp, L., van Breda, J., Dondi, N., Lusithi, T., Mdunyelwa, A., Mgwigwi, Z., Mhlalisi, M., Myeza, S., Nomela, G., October, A., Rangana, W., & Yalabi, M. (2022). Informality and water justice: community perspectives on water issues in Cape Town’s low-income neighbourhoods. International Journal of Water Resources Development, 38(1), 108–129. https: //doi.org/10.1080/07900627.2020.1841605

[10]. Boelens, R., Hoogesteger, J., Swyngedouw, E., Vos, J., & Wester, P. (2023). Riverhood: Political ecologies of socionature commoning and translocal struggles for water justice. In Riverhood: The Politics of Socionature in the Struggle for Water Justice (pp. 1–31). Routledge. https: //doi.org/10.4324/9781003246805-1

[11]. Graham, J. P., Hirai, M., & Kim, S. S. (2016). An analysis of water collection labor among women and children in 24 sub-Saharan African countries. PLOS ONE, 11(6), e0155981. https: //doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0155981

[12]. Kangmennaang, J., Bisung, E., & Elliott, S. J. (2020). “We are drinking diseases”: Perception of water insecurity and emotional distress in urban slums in Accra, Ghana. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(3), 890.https: //doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17030890

[13]. Bell, K. (2016). Bread and roses: A gender perspective on environmental justice and public health. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 13(10), 1005.

[14]. Babuna, P., Yang, X., Tulcan, R. X. S., Bian, D., Takase, M., Guba, B. Y., Han, C., Awudi, D. A., & Li, M. (2023). Modeling water inequality and water security: The role of water governance. Journal of Environmental Management, 326, 116815. https: //doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2022.116815

[15]. Dongzagla, A., Dordaa, F., & Agbenyo, F. (2022). Spatial inequality in safely managed water access in Ghana. Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development, 12(12), 869–882. https: //doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2022.099

[16]. World Bank. (2024). Ghana’s climate vulnerability profile. Washington, DC: World Bank.

[17]. Padi, M., Foli, B. A. K., Nyadjro, E. S., Owusu, K., & Wiafe, G. (2021). Extreme rainfall events over Accra, Ghana in recent years. Remote Sensing in Earth Systems Sciences. https: //doi.org/10.1007/s41976-021-00052-3

[18]. Mojekwu, J. N., Nani, G., Ogunsumi, L., Tetteh, M. U. S., Awere, M. E., Pardie-Ocran, M. S., & Bamfo-Agyei, M. E. ARCA.

[19]. Tsai, A. C., & Boateng, G. O. (2021). Water insecurity: Insights from underserved communities in Accra, Ghana. American Academy of Arts & Sciences. https: //www.amacad.org/publication/water-insecurity-insights-underserved-accra-ghana

[20]. Atsugah, E. J., & John, A. (2025, June 27). Ghana’s water emergency: Unraveling the layers of crisis, inequity, and urgent reform. Amandla! Retrieved from https: //www.amandla.org.za/ghanas-water-emergency-unraveling-the-layers-of-crisis-inequity-and-urgent-reform/

[21]. Citi Newsroom. (2025, April 16). Water crisis hits Accra; residents, businesses struggle to cope. https: //citinewsroom.com/2025/04/water-crisis-hits-accra-residents-businesses-struggle-to-cope/

[22]. Ghana Statistical Service (GSS). (2021). 2021 Population and Housing Census: Summary Report of Final Results. Accra.

[23]. Ghana News Agency. (2025). Kpone residents express frustration over persistent water shortages. Retrieved from https: //gna.org.gh/2025/02/kpone-residents-express-frustration-over-persistent-water-shortages/

[24]. Achore, M., & Bisung, E. (2023). Coping with water insecurity in urban Ghana: Patterns, determinants and consequences. Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development, 13(2), 150–163. https: //doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2023.203

[25]. Ainuson, K. G. (2010). Urban water politics and water security in disadvantaged urban communities in Ghana. African Studies Quarterly, 11(4), 59–77.

[26]. Morinville, C., & Harris, L. M. (2014). Participation, politics, and panaceas: exploring the possibilities and limits of participatory urban water governance in Accra, Ghana. Ecology and Society, 19(3), 36. http: //dx.doi.org/10.5751/ES-06623-190336

References

[1]. Zwarteveen, M., & Boelens, R. (2014). Defining, researching and struggling for water justice: Some conceptual building blocks for research and action. Water International, 39(2), 143–158. https: //doi.org/10.1080/02508060.2014.891168

[2]. United Nations. (2010). The human right to water and sanitation (Resolution A/RES/64/292). United Nations General Assembly.

[3]. United Nations. (2018). Sustainable Development Goal 6 Synthesis Report 2018 on Water and Sanitation. United Nations.

[4]. Jaglin, S. (2022). Water resources and socio-spatial inequalities in Sub-Saharan Africa: Legacies, clues and research agenda. In Jaglin, S., & Zérah, M.-H. (Eds.), Undisciplined Environments: Spaces, Politics and Practices in the Global South (pp. 157–176). Springer. https: //doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-60502-4_8

[5]. Chitonge, H., Mokoena, A., Kongo, M. (2020). Water and Sanitation Inequality in Africa: Challenges for SDG 6. In: Ramutsindela, M., Mickler, D. (eds) Africa and the Sustainable Development Goals. Sustainable Development Goals Series. Springer, Cham. https: //doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-14857-7_20

[6]. Yalew, S. G., Kwakkel, J., & Doorn, N. (2021). Distributive justice and sustainability goals in transboundary rivers: Case of the Nile Basin. Frontiers in Environmental Science, 8, Article 590954. https: //doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2020.590954

[7]. Rossi, Maurizio, and Marina Fischer-Kowalski. Dimensions of Inequality in Urban and Rural Water Use and Water Accessibility in Sub-Saharan Africa. Sustainability 12.2 (2020): 574. https: //doi.org/10.3390/su12020574

[8]. Pullan, R. L., Freeman, M. C., Gething, P. W., & Brooker, S. J. (2014). Geographical inequalities in use of improved drinking water supply and sanitation across sub-Saharan Africa: Mapping and spatial analysis of cross-sectional survey data. PLOS Medicine, 11(4), e1001626. https: //doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1001626

[9]. Enqvist, J., Ziervogel, G., Metelerkamp, L., van Breda, J., Dondi, N., Lusithi, T., Mdunyelwa, A., Mgwigwi, Z., Mhlalisi, M., Myeza, S., Nomela, G., October, A., Rangana, W., & Yalabi, M. (2022). Informality and water justice: community perspectives on water issues in Cape Town’s low-income neighbourhoods. International Journal of Water Resources Development, 38(1), 108–129. https: //doi.org/10.1080/07900627.2020.1841605

[10]. Boelens, R., Hoogesteger, J., Swyngedouw, E., Vos, J., & Wester, P. (2023). Riverhood: Political ecologies of socionature commoning and translocal struggles for water justice. In Riverhood: The Politics of Socionature in the Struggle for Water Justice (pp. 1–31). Routledge. https: //doi.org/10.4324/9781003246805-1

[11]. Graham, J. P., Hirai, M., & Kim, S. S. (2016). An analysis of water collection labor among women and children in 24 sub-Saharan African countries. PLOS ONE, 11(6), e0155981. https: //doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0155981

[12]. Kangmennaang, J., Bisung, E., & Elliott, S. J. (2020). “We are drinking diseases”: Perception of water insecurity and emotional distress in urban slums in Accra, Ghana. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(3), 890.https: //doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17030890

[13]. Bell, K. (2016). Bread and roses: A gender perspective on environmental justice and public health. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 13(10), 1005.

[14]. Babuna, P., Yang, X., Tulcan, R. X. S., Bian, D., Takase, M., Guba, B. Y., Han, C., Awudi, D. A., & Li, M. (2023). Modeling water inequality and water security: The role of water governance. Journal of Environmental Management, 326, 116815. https: //doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2022.116815

[15]. Dongzagla, A., Dordaa, F., & Agbenyo, F. (2022). Spatial inequality in safely managed water access in Ghana. Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development, 12(12), 869–882. https: //doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2022.099

[16]. World Bank. (2024). Ghana’s climate vulnerability profile. Washington, DC: World Bank.

[17]. Padi, M., Foli, B. A. K., Nyadjro, E. S., Owusu, K., & Wiafe, G. (2021). Extreme rainfall events over Accra, Ghana in recent years. Remote Sensing in Earth Systems Sciences. https: //doi.org/10.1007/s41976-021-00052-3

[18]. Mojekwu, J. N., Nani, G., Ogunsumi, L., Tetteh, M. U. S., Awere, M. E., Pardie-Ocran, M. S., & Bamfo-Agyei, M. E. ARCA.

[19]. Tsai, A. C., & Boateng, G. O. (2021). Water insecurity: Insights from underserved communities in Accra, Ghana. American Academy of Arts & Sciences. https: //www.amacad.org/publication/water-insecurity-insights-underserved-accra-ghana

[20]. Atsugah, E. J., & John, A. (2025, June 27). Ghana’s water emergency: Unraveling the layers of crisis, inequity, and urgent reform. Amandla! Retrieved from https: //www.amandla.org.za/ghanas-water-emergency-unraveling-the-layers-of-crisis-inequity-and-urgent-reform/

[21]. Citi Newsroom. (2025, April 16). Water crisis hits Accra; residents, businesses struggle to cope. https: //citinewsroom.com/2025/04/water-crisis-hits-accra-residents-businesses-struggle-to-cope/

[22]. Ghana Statistical Service (GSS). (2021). 2021 Population and Housing Census: Summary Report of Final Results. Accra.

[23]. Ghana News Agency. (2025). Kpone residents express frustration over persistent water shortages. Retrieved from https: //gna.org.gh/2025/02/kpone-residents-express-frustration-over-persistent-water-shortages/

[24]. Achore, M., & Bisung, E. (2023). Coping with water insecurity in urban Ghana: Patterns, determinants and consequences. Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development, 13(2), 150–163. https: //doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2023.203

[25]. Ainuson, K. G. (2010). Urban water politics and water security in disadvantaged urban communities in Ghana. African Studies Quarterly, 11(4), 59–77.

[26]. Morinville, C., & Harris, L. M. (2014). Participation, politics, and panaceas: exploring the possibilities and limits of participatory urban water governance in Accra, Ghana. Ecology and Society, 19(3), 36. http: //dx.doi.org/10.5751/ES-06623-190336

Cite this article

Zhao,J. (2025). Water Justice and Urban Inequality in Ghana: Institutional and Spatial Exclusion in Greater Accra. Lecture Notes in Education Psychology and Public Media,116,40-48.

Data availability

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study will be available from the authors upon reasonable request.

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Volume title: Proceeding of ICSPHS 2026 Symposium: Urban Industrial Innovation and Resilience-oriented Regional Transformation

ISBN: 978-1-80590-535-6(Print) / 978-1-80590-536-3(Online)
Editor: Enrique Mallen, Xiaohui Hu
Conference website: https://www.icsphs.org/Hangzhou.html
Conference date: 29 December 2025
Series: Lecture Notes in Education Psychology and Public Media
Volume number: Vol.116
ISSN: 2753-7048(Print) / 2753-7056(Online)

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