From Formal Neutrality to Substantive Justice: An Evolutionary Analysis of U.S. Equality Law Through Landmark Workplace Gender Discrimination Cases
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From Formal Neutrality to Substantive Justice: An Evolutionary Analysis of U.S. Equality Law Through Landmark Workplace Gender Discrimination Cases

Hejia Cai 1*
1 Canadian International School of Hong Kong
*Corresponding author: hejiacai2026@cdnis.edu.hk
Published on 28 October 2025
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CHR Vol.93
ISSN (Print): 2753-7072
ISSN (Online): 2753-7064
ISBN (Print): 978-1-80590-483-0
ISBN (Online): 978-1-80590-484-7
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Abstract

This paper examines the evolution of U.S. equality law in workplace gender discrimination, charting a shift from formal neutrality to substantive justice. Using doctrinal analysis of landmark cases—Phillips v. Martin Marietta (1971), Meritor Savings Bank v. Vinson (1986), and Price Waterhouse v. Hopkins (1989)—it shows how courts moved beyond surface non-discrimination to recognize hostile work environments, sex stereotyping, and mixed-motive decision-making under Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The analysis finds that these rulings advanced substantive equality by addressing invisible harms and systemic bias, yet legal remedies still struggle with structural inequalities reinforced by organizational practices and social norms. The paper further evaluates limits in evidentiary burdens, procedural hurdles, and the expost nature of litigation. It concludes that achieving genuine gender justice requires a multi-pronged strategy: targeted statutory reform, proactive compliance and transparency mechanisms, data-driven monitoring tools, and coordinated cultural and organizational change. Policy recommendations outline preventive audits, clearer burden-shifting rules, and cross-sector collaboration to close the law–society gap.

Keywords:

U.S. Equality Law, Workplace Gender Discrimination, Substantive Equality.

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Cai,H. (2025). From Formal Neutrality to Substantive Justice: An Evolutionary Analysis of U.S. Equality Law Through Landmark Workplace Gender Discrimination Cases. Communications in Humanities Research,93,51-59.

References

[1]. United States Department of Justice. (n.d.) Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Retrieved from https: //www.justice.gov/sites/default/files/crt/legacy/2010/12/15/Title_VII_Statute.pdf

[2]. Phillips v. Martin Marietta Corp., 400 U.S. 542 (1971). Retrieved from https: //www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/400/542

[3]. Williams, K.H. (1973) Phillips v. Martin Marietta Corporation: A Muted Victory. Catholic University Law Review, 22, 441–454.

[4]. Fineman, M.A. (2005) Feminist Legal Theory. Journal of Gender, Social Policy & the Law, 13, 13–23.

[5]. Bailey, M.J., Helgerman, T. and Stuart, B.A. (2023) How the 1963 Equal Pay Act and 1964 Civil Rights Act Shaped the Gender Gap in Pay. IZA Discussion Paper Series, 16700. Retrieved from https: //www.iza.org/publications/dp/16700/how-the-1963-equal-pay-act-and-1964-civil-rights-act-shaped-the-gender-gap-in-pay

[6]. Meritor Savings Bank, FSB v. Vinson, 477 U.S. 57 (1986). Retrieved from https: //www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/477/57

[7]. Schauer, F. (2000) The Speech-ing of Sexual Harassment. John F. Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University, Faculty Research Working Papers Series, 00–012. Retrieved from https: //papers.ssrn.com/paper.taf?abstract_id=253828

[8]. MacKinnon, C. (1979) Sexual Harassment and Gender Equality. Yale University Press, New Haven, CT.

[9]. Shannon, J.H. and Hunter, R.J., Jr. (2020) The Civil Rights Act of 1964: Beyond Race to Employment Discrimination Based on Sex: The “Three Letter Word” That Has Continued to Vex Society and the United States Supreme Court. Journal of Social and Political Sciences, 3, 613–636. Retrieved from https: //ssrn.com/abstract=3649409

[10]. Price Waterhouse v. Hopkins, 490 U.S. 228 (1989). Retrieved from https: //www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/490/228

[11]. Tinsley, C.H., Cheldelin, S.I., Schneider, A.K. and Amanatullah, E.T. (2009) Women at the Bargaining Table: Pitfalls and Prospects. Negotiation Journal, 25, 233–254.

[12]. Franklin, C. (2021) Living Textualism. Supreme Court Review, 2021.

[13]. Archibald, C.J. (2016) Transgender Bathroom Rights. Duke Journal of Gender Law & Policy, 24, 1–34.

[14]. Minow, M. (1990) Making All the Difference. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY.

[15]. Van Dam, A. (2025, January 03) The Real Reason American Men Are Finally Doing More Chores. The Washington Post. Retrieved from https: //www.washingtonpost.com/business/2025/01/03/household-chores-gender-divide/

[16]. Lorber, J. (1995) The Paradox of Gender. Yale University Press, New Haven, CT.

[17]. Ledbetter v. Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co., 550 U.S. 618 (2007). Retrieved from https: //www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/05-1074.ZO.html

[18]. Gabriel, T. and Moses, C. (2024, October 14) Lilly Ledbetter, Whose Fight for Equal Pay Changed U.S. Law, Dies at 86. The New York Times. Retrieved from https: //www.nytimes.com/2024/10/14/obituaries/lilly-ledbetter-dead.html

[19]. Guinier, L. (2016) The Tyranny of the Meritocracy. Beacon Press, Boston, MA.

[20]. Cox, J. (2022, September 30) The US Push for Pay Transparency. BBC. Retrieved from https: //www.bbc.com/worklife/article/20220929-the-us-push-for-pay-transparency

[21]. Bloomberg News. (2017, November 14) Women Make Slight Gains at Microsoft after Purchase of LinkedIn. Retrieved from https: //www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-11-14/women-make-slight-gains-at-microsoft-after-purchase-of-linkedin

[22]. United Kingdom Parliament, Joint Committee on Human Rights. (2004) [Report title]. Retrieved from https: //publications.parliament.uk/pa/jt200304/jtselect/jtrights/156/156.pdf

[23]. Department of Education, Government of India. (n.d.) Prevention of Sexual Harassment. Retrieved from https: //doe.gov.in/files/inline-documents/DoE_Prevention_sexual_harassment.pdf

References

[1]. United States Department of Justice. (n.d.) Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Retrieved from https: //www.justice.gov/sites/default/files/crt/legacy/2010/12/15/Title_VII_Statute.pdf

[2]. Phillips v. Martin Marietta Corp., 400 U.S. 542 (1971). Retrieved from https: //www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/400/542

[3]. Williams, K.H. (1973) Phillips v. Martin Marietta Corporation: A Muted Victory. Catholic University Law Review, 22, 441–454.

[4]. Fineman, M.A. (2005) Feminist Legal Theory. Journal of Gender, Social Policy & the Law, 13, 13–23.

[5]. Bailey, M.J., Helgerman, T. and Stuart, B.A. (2023) How the 1963 Equal Pay Act and 1964 Civil Rights Act Shaped the Gender Gap in Pay. IZA Discussion Paper Series, 16700. Retrieved from https: //www.iza.org/publications/dp/16700/how-the-1963-equal-pay-act-and-1964-civil-rights-act-shaped-the-gender-gap-in-pay

[6]. Meritor Savings Bank, FSB v. Vinson, 477 U.S. 57 (1986). Retrieved from https: //www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/477/57

[7]. Schauer, F. (2000) The Speech-ing of Sexual Harassment. John F. Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University, Faculty Research Working Papers Series, 00–012. Retrieved from https: //papers.ssrn.com/paper.taf?abstract_id=253828

[8]. MacKinnon, C. (1979) Sexual Harassment and Gender Equality. Yale University Press, New Haven, CT.

[9]. Shannon, J.H. and Hunter, R.J., Jr. (2020) The Civil Rights Act of 1964: Beyond Race to Employment Discrimination Based on Sex: The “Three Letter Word” That Has Continued to Vex Society and the United States Supreme Court. Journal of Social and Political Sciences, 3, 613–636. Retrieved from https: //ssrn.com/abstract=3649409

[10]. Price Waterhouse v. Hopkins, 490 U.S. 228 (1989). Retrieved from https: //www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/490/228

[11]. Tinsley, C.H., Cheldelin, S.I., Schneider, A.K. and Amanatullah, E.T. (2009) Women at the Bargaining Table: Pitfalls and Prospects. Negotiation Journal, 25, 233–254.

[12]. Franklin, C. (2021) Living Textualism. Supreme Court Review, 2021.

[13]. Archibald, C.J. (2016) Transgender Bathroom Rights. Duke Journal of Gender Law & Policy, 24, 1–34.

[14]. Minow, M. (1990) Making All the Difference. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY.

[15]. Van Dam, A. (2025, January 03) The Real Reason American Men Are Finally Doing More Chores. The Washington Post. Retrieved from https: //www.washingtonpost.com/business/2025/01/03/household-chores-gender-divide/

[16]. Lorber, J. (1995) The Paradox of Gender. Yale University Press, New Haven, CT.

[17]. Ledbetter v. Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co., 550 U.S. 618 (2007). Retrieved from https: //www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/05-1074.ZO.html

[18]. Gabriel, T. and Moses, C. (2024, October 14) Lilly Ledbetter, Whose Fight for Equal Pay Changed U.S. Law, Dies at 86. The New York Times. Retrieved from https: //www.nytimes.com/2024/10/14/obituaries/lilly-ledbetter-dead.html

[19]. Guinier, L. (2016) The Tyranny of the Meritocracy. Beacon Press, Boston, MA.

[20]. Cox, J. (2022, September 30) The US Push for Pay Transparency. BBC. Retrieved from https: //www.bbc.com/worklife/article/20220929-the-us-push-for-pay-transparency

[21]. Bloomberg News. (2017, November 14) Women Make Slight Gains at Microsoft after Purchase of LinkedIn. Retrieved from https: //www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-11-14/women-make-slight-gains-at-microsoft-after-purchase-of-linkedin

[22]. United Kingdom Parliament, Joint Committee on Human Rights. (2004) [Report title]. Retrieved from https: //publications.parliament.uk/pa/jt200304/jtselect/jtrights/156/156.pdf

[23]. Department of Education, Government of India. (n.d.) Prevention of Sexual Harassment. Retrieved from https: //doe.gov.in/files/inline-documents/DoE_Prevention_sexual_harassment.pdf

Cite this article

Cai,H. (2025). From Formal Neutrality to Substantive Justice: An Evolutionary Analysis of U.S. Equality Law Through Landmark Workplace Gender Discrimination Cases. Communications in Humanities Research,93,51-59.

Data availability

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study will be available from the authors upon reasonable request.

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Volume title: Proceeding of ICIHCS 2025 Symposium: The Dialogue Between Tradition and Innovation in Language Learning

ISBN: 978-1-80590-483-0(Print) / 978-1-80590-484-7(Online)
Editor: Enrique Mallen, Heidi Gregory-Mina
Conference website: https://2025.icihcs.org/
Conference date: 17 November 2025
Series: Communications in Humanities Research
Volume number: Vol.93
ISSN: 2753-7064(Print) / 2753-7072(Online)

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