The Effect of Supervision on Working Efficiency: How is Working Overtime Driven?
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The Effect of Supervision on Working Efficiency: How is Working Overtime Driven?

Dianyu Li 1* Yelin Deng 2, Chengjia Wang 3
1 Shihezi University
2 the Affiliated High School of South China Normal University (HFI)
3 Shanghai High School International Division
*Corresponding author: michaelli20050308@163.com
Published on 19 November 2025
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AEMPS Vol.241
ISSN (Print): 2754-1177
ISSN (Online): 2754-1169
ISBN (Print): 978-1-80590-541-7
ISBN (Online): 978-1-80590-542-4
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Abstract

As the phenomenon of overtime working causes significant social harm, especially in China, to effectively make policies against this issue, it became vital to decode the factors that drives people to work overtime. Aside from the “involution” conformity pressure and intrinsic motivation, we believe that supervision from an authoritative figure plays a key role under different conditions. Within our study, by analyzing our data from a questionnaire we distributed on our own with linear regression and entropy weighting, we derived at the conclusion that: (1) supervision can significantly improve the overtime working efficiency and tendency of the employees. (2) Autocratic supervision exerts the strongest influence (+18.45% willingness, +19.59% acceptance) on the employee’s tendency to work overtime. (3) Normative social influence acts as the primary motivator for overtime working among employees generally (64.02 entropy weight), outweighing reciprocity (50.04), signaling (44.31), and intrinsic motivation (21.73). (4) Supervised settings increase predicted overtime efficiency by 5.45%.

Keywords:

Overtime Working, Regression, Entropy Weighting

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Li,D.;Deng,Y.;Wang,C. (2025). The Effect of Supervision on Working Efficiency: How is Working Overtime Driven?. Advances in Economics, Management and Political Sciences,241,1-14.

References

[1]. Liang, Z. (2016). China’s great migration and the prospects of a more integrated society. Annual Review of Sociology, 42, 451–471. https: //doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-081715-074435

[2]. Niu, L., & Yang, Z. (2022). Impact of performance climate on overtime behaviors of new generation employees: The moderating effect of perceived employability and mediating role of job insecurity. Psychology Research and Behavior Management, 15, 3733–3749. https: //doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S390051

[3]. Emmerich, A. I., & Rigotti, T. (2017). How personal resources influence work engagement and leadership behavior: The effects of job and personal resources on work engagement and the consequences for leadership behavior. Zeitschrift für Arbeits- und Organisationspsychologie A& O, 61(3), 133–148. https: //doi.org/10.1026/0932-4089/a000248

[4]. Liu, B., Chen, H., Yang, X., & Hou, C. (2019). Why work overtime? A systematic review on the evolutionary trend and influencing factors of work hours in China. Frontiers in Public Health, 7, 343. https: //doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2019.00343

[5]. Sparks, K., Cooper, C. L., Fried, Y., & Shirom, A. (1997). The effects of hours of work on health: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 70(4), 391–408. https: //doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8325.1997.tb00656.x

[6]. Cui, Y., Zhang, Y., & Liu, Y. (2023). Overwork-induced exploitation of Chinese adults: Social isolation, loneliness as mediating effects on mental health. Heliyon, 9(11), e22345. https: //doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e22345

[7]. Li, R., Liu, S., & Huang, C. (2023). Association between overtime and depressive symptoms among Chinese employees. Heliyon, 9(6), e17344. https: //doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e17344

[8]. Shen, J., Benson, J., Zhang, Y., & Zhu, L. (2025). The hidden cost of mandatory unpaid overtime: How and when mandatory unpaid overtime undermines subsequent motivation to work. Human Resource Management Journal, 35(2), 397–413. https: //doi.org/10.1111/1748-8583.12598

[9]. Bell, D. N. F., Hart, R. A., Hübler, O., & Schwerdt, W. (2000). Paid and unpaid overtime working in Germany and the UK (IZA Discussion Paper No. 133). Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA). https: //www.iza.org/publications/dp/133/paid-and-unpaid-overtime-working-in-germany-and-the-uk

[10]. Tan, J., Zhang, C., & Li, Z. (2023). Why do employees actively work overtime? The motivation of employees’ active overtime in China. Frontiers in Psychology, 14, 1120758. https: //doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1120758

[11]. Wang, Y., Zhao, T., & Zhang, Y. (2025). The perception of labor control and employee overtime behavior in China: The mediating role of job autonomy and the moderating role of occupational value orientation. Sustainability, 17(5), 1956. https: //doi.org/10.3390/su17051956

[12]. Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Supervision. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved August 21, 2025, from https: //www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/supervision

[13]. Benevene, P., Dal Corso, L., De Carlo, A., Falco, A., Carluccio, F., & Vecina, M. L. (2020). Positive supervisor behaviors and employee performance: The serial mediation of workplace spirituality and work engagement. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 1834. https: //doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01834

[14]. De Carlo, N. A., Dal Corso, L., Falco, A., Girardi, D., & Piccirelli, A. (2016). “To be, rather than to seem”: The impact of supervisor’s and personal responsibility on work engagement, job performance, and job satisfaction in a positive healthcare organization. TPM Testing, Psychometrics, Methodology in Applied Psychology, 23(4), 561–580. https: //doi.org/10.4473/TPM23.4.9

[15]. Mor Barak, M. E., Travis, D. J., Pyun, H., & Xie, B. (2009). The impact of supervision on worker outcomes: A meta-analysis. Social Service Review, 83(1), 3–32. https: //doi.org/10.1086/599028

[16]. Fosse, T. K., Skogstad, A., Einarsen, S., & Martinussen, M. (2019). Active and passive forms of destructive leadership in a military context: A systematic review and meta-analysis. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 28(5), 708–722. https: //doi.org/10.1080/1359432X.2019.1634550

[17]. Haque, A., Islam, M. S., & Chowdhury, S. P. (2023). The effects of abusive supervision on the behaviors of employees in an organization. Heliyon, 9(10), e20596. https: //doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e20596

[18]. Hobfoll, S. E., Halbesleben, J., Neveu, J.-P., & Westman, M. (2018). Conservation of resources in the organizational context: The reality of resources and their consequences. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 5, 103–128. https: //doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-032117-104640

[19]. Blau, P. M. (1965). Exchange and power in social life. Wiley.

[20]. Yu, J., & Leka, S. (2022). Where is the limit for overtime? Impacts of overtime on employees’ mental health and potential solutions: A qualitative study in China. Frontiers in Psychology, 13. https: //doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.976723

[21]. Chanty team. (2024). Working overtime: Pros, cons, and 20 statistics. Chanty Blog. https: //www.chanty.com/blog/working-overtime/

[22]. Kang, J. H., Matusik, J. G., & Barclay, L. A. (2017). Affective and normative motives to work overtime in Asian organizations: Four cultural orientations from Confucian ethics. Journal of Business Ethics, 140(1), 115–130. https: //doi.org/10.1007/s10551-015-2683-4

[23]. Yang, S., Chen, L., & Bi, X. (2023). Overtime work, job autonomy, and employees’ subjective well-being: Evidence from China. Frontiers in Public Health, 11. https: //doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2023.1077177

References

[1]. Liang, Z. (2016). China’s great migration and the prospects of a more integrated society. Annual Review of Sociology, 42, 451–471. https: //doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-081715-074435

[2]. Niu, L., & Yang, Z. (2022). Impact of performance climate on overtime behaviors of new generation employees: The moderating effect of perceived employability and mediating role of job insecurity. Psychology Research and Behavior Management, 15, 3733–3749. https: //doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S390051

[3]. Emmerich, A. I., & Rigotti, T. (2017). How personal resources influence work engagement and leadership behavior: The effects of job and personal resources on work engagement and the consequences for leadership behavior. Zeitschrift für Arbeits- und Organisationspsychologie A& O, 61(3), 133–148. https: //doi.org/10.1026/0932-4089/a000248

[4]. Liu, B., Chen, H., Yang, X., & Hou, C. (2019). Why work overtime? A systematic review on the evolutionary trend and influencing factors of work hours in China. Frontiers in Public Health, 7, 343. https: //doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2019.00343

[5]. Sparks, K., Cooper, C. L., Fried, Y., & Shirom, A. (1997). The effects of hours of work on health: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 70(4), 391–408. https: //doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8325.1997.tb00656.x

[6]. Cui, Y., Zhang, Y., & Liu, Y. (2023). Overwork-induced exploitation of Chinese adults: Social isolation, loneliness as mediating effects on mental health. Heliyon, 9(11), e22345. https: //doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e22345

[7]. Li, R., Liu, S., & Huang, C. (2023). Association between overtime and depressive symptoms among Chinese employees. Heliyon, 9(6), e17344. https: //doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e17344

[8]. Shen, J., Benson, J., Zhang, Y., & Zhu, L. (2025). The hidden cost of mandatory unpaid overtime: How and when mandatory unpaid overtime undermines subsequent motivation to work. Human Resource Management Journal, 35(2), 397–413. https: //doi.org/10.1111/1748-8583.12598

[9]. Bell, D. N. F., Hart, R. A., Hübler, O., & Schwerdt, W. (2000). Paid and unpaid overtime working in Germany and the UK (IZA Discussion Paper No. 133). Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA). https: //www.iza.org/publications/dp/133/paid-and-unpaid-overtime-working-in-germany-and-the-uk

[10]. Tan, J., Zhang, C., & Li, Z. (2023). Why do employees actively work overtime? The motivation of employees’ active overtime in China. Frontiers in Psychology, 14, 1120758. https: //doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1120758

[11]. Wang, Y., Zhao, T., & Zhang, Y. (2025). The perception of labor control and employee overtime behavior in China: The mediating role of job autonomy and the moderating role of occupational value orientation. Sustainability, 17(5), 1956. https: //doi.org/10.3390/su17051956

[12]. Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Supervision. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved August 21, 2025, from https: //www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/supervision

[13]. Benevene, P., Dal Corso, L., De Carlo, A., Falco, A., Carluccio, F., & Vecina, M. L. (2020). Positive supervisor behaviors and employee performance: The serial mediation of workplace spirituality and work engagement. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 1834. https: //doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01834

[14]. De Carlo, N. A., Dal Corso, L., Falco, A., Girardi, D., & Piccirelli, A. (2016). “To be, rather than to seem”: The impact of supervisor’s and personal responsibility on work engagement, job performance, and job satisfaction in a positive healthcare organization. TPM Testing, Psychometrics, Methodology in Applied Psychology, 23(4), 561–580. https: //doi.org/10.4473/TPM23.4.9

[15]. Mor Barak, M. E., Travis, D. J., Pyun, H., & Xie, B. (2009). The impact of supervision on worker outcomes: A meta-analysis. Social Service Review, 83(1), 3–32. https: //doi.org/10.1086/599028

[16]. Fosse, T. K., Skogstad, A., Einarsen, S., & Martinussen, M. (2019). Active and passive forms of destructive leadership in a military context: A systematic review and meta-analysis. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 28(5), 708–722. https: //doi.org/10.1080/1359432X.2019.1634550

[17]. Haque, A., Islam, M. S., & Chowdhury, S. P. (2023). The effects of abusive supervision on the behaviors of employees in an organization. Heliyon, 9(10), e20596. https: //doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e20596

[18]. Hobfoll, S. E., Halbesleben, J., Neveu, J.-P., & Westman, M. (2018). Conservation of resources in the organizational context: The reality of resources and their consequences. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 5, 103–128. https: //doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-032117-104640

[19]. Blau, P. M. (1965). Exchange and power in social life. Wiley.

[20]. Yu, J., & Leka, S. (2022). Where is the limit for overtime? Impacts of overtime on employees’ mental health and potential solutions: A qualitative study in China. Frontiers in Psychology, 13. https: //doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.976723

[21]. Chanty team. (2024). Working overtime: Pros, cons, and 20 statistics. Chanty Blog. https: //www.chanty.com/blog/working-overtime/

[22]. Kang, J. H., Matusik, J. G., & Barclay, L. A. (2017). Affective and normative motives to work overtime in Asian organizations: Four cultural orientations from Confucian ethics. Journal of Business Ethics, 140(1), 115–130. https: //doi.org/10.1007/s10551-015-2683-4

[23]. Yang, S., Chen, L., & Bi, X. (2023). Overtime work, job autonomy, and employees’ subjective well-being: Evidence from China. Frontiers in Public Health, 11. https: //doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2023.1077177

Cite this article

Li,D.;Deng,Y.;Wang,C. (2025). The Effect of Supervision on Working Efficiency: How is Working Overtime Driven?. Advances in Economics, Management and Political Sciences,241,1-14.

Data availability

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study will be available from the authors upon reasonable request.

About volume

Volume title: Proceedings of ICFTBA 2025 Symposium: Global Trends in Green Financial Innovation and Technology

ISBN: 978-1-80590-541-7(Print) / 978-1-80590-542-4(Online)
Editor: Lukáš Vartiak, Sun Huaping
Conference website: https://www.icftba.org/Beijing.html
Conference date: 20 November 2025
Series: Advances in Economics, Management and Political Sciences
Volume number: Vol.241
ISSN: 2754-1169(Print) / 2754-1177(Online)

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