From Financial Crisis to Pandemic: Gender Discrimination and Employment Inequality among Female Workers
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From Financial Crisis to Pandemic: Gender Discrimination and Employment Inequality among Female Workers

Yuhao Zhang 1*
1 University of Leeds
*Corresponding author: ss234yz@leeds.ac.uk
Published on 14 October 2025
Journal Cover
AEMPS Vol.226
ISSN (Print): 2754-1177
ISSN (Online): 2754-1169
ISBN (Print): 978-1-80590-345-1
ISBN (Online): 978-1-80590-346-8
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Abstract

Throughout recent global shocks, the economy was impacted by recessions and widespread unemployment caused by quarantine measures and social restrictions, with the tertiary service and healthcare sectors being the most severely impacted. This study, based on secondary data, summarizes the effects of the economic downturn on the labor market and analyzes employment trends and inequalities among female workers. Using data from the International Labour Organization (ILO), it examines gender consistency, employment biases against women, and underlying causes of inequality from sociological and ethical perspectives. The results indicate that the unemployment wave triggered by the economic recession is not directly correlated with impacts on women’s employment. Instead, the main factors contributing to female unemployment are the need for flexible working hours and the time costs associated with childcare. To lower the risk of unemployment among women, targeted employment policy support should be provided at the policy level, while female workers need to enhance their competitiveness, such as by acquiring digital or AI-related skills, to adapt to the changing labor market.

Keywords:

Labour Market, Female Employment, Economic Crisis, Tertiary Industry, Role Congruity

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Zhang,Y. (2025). From Financial Crisis to Pandemic: Gender Discrimination and Employment Inequality among Female Workers. Advances in Economics, Management and Political Sciences,226,64-71.

References

[1]. Tambunan, T. T. H. (2019). The impact of the economic crisis on micro, small, and medium enterprises and their crisis mitigation measures in Southeast Asia with reference to Indonesia. Asia & the Pacific Policy Studies, 6(1), 19-39. https: //doi.org/10.1002/app5.264

[2]. Wullweber, J. (2020). The COVID-19 financial crisis, global financial instabilities and transformations in the financial system. In Transformative responses to the crisis. https: //doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3688453

[3]. Marin-Ferrer, M., Vernaccini, L., & Poljansek, K. (2017). INFORM index for risk management: Concept and methodology, version 2017. Publications Office of the European Union. https: //doi.org/10.2760/094023

[4]. Alkan, H. I. (2025). Looking beyond the obvious - Being a childless female employee in Turkish labour market. Humanities & Social Sciences Communications, 12(1), 1-14. https: //doi.org/10.1057/s41599-025-05430-6

[5]. Jessica, C., Mary, W., Pauline, G., & Robyn, G. R. (2025). Lessons learned the hard way: Sharing experiences from female radiologists regarding gender inequality. Current Problems in Diagnostic Radiology, 54(1), 40-44.

[6]. European Union. (2025). National accounts and GDP. https: //ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=National_accounts_and_GDP

[7]. International Labour Organization. (2021). Building forward fairer: Women’s rights to work and at work at the core of the COVID-19 recovery. https: //www.ilo.org/publications/building-forward-fairer-women%E2%80%99s-rights-work-and-work-core-covid-19-recovery

[8]. International Monetary Fund (IMF). (2022). World Economic Outlook, April 2022: War Sets Back the Global Recovery. https: //www.imf.org/zh/Publications/WEO/Issues/2022/04/19/world-economic-outlook-april-2022

[9]. Airoldi, D. M. (2020). Marriott puts thousands on furlough, plans to close hotels. Business Travel News. https: //www.businesstravelnews.com/Global-Covid/Marriott-Puts-Thousands-on-Furlough-Plans-to-Close-Hotels/36037

[10]. Keshavarzi Arshadi, A., Webb, J., Salem, M., et al. (2020). Artificial intelligence for COVID-19 drug discovery and vaccine development. Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence, 3, 65.

[11]. Bridges, W. P. (1980). Industry marginality and female employment: A new appraisal. American Sociological Review, 45(1), 58-75. https: //doi.org/10.2307/2095243

[12]. Heath, R., Bernhardt, A., Borker, G., et al. (2024). Female labour force participation. VoxDevLit, 11(1), 3-30. https: //www.voxdev.org/sites/default/files/2024-04/FemaleLabourForceParticipation_Issue1.pdf

[13]. Karageorge, E. X. (2025). COVID-19 recession is tougher on women. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. https: //www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/2020/beyond-bls/covid-19-recession-is-tougher-on-women.htm

[14]. Ganesan, B., et al. (2021). Impact of Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak quarantine, isolation, and lockdown policies on mental health and suicide. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 12, 565190.

[15]. Huang, A., De la Mora Velasco, E., Marsh, J., & Workman, H. (2021). COVID-19 and the future of work in the hospitality industry. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 97, 102986.

[16]. Alobaid, A. M., Gosling, C. M., Khasawneh, E., McKenna, L., & Williams, B. (2020). Challenges faced by female healthcare professionals in the workforce: A scoping review. Journal of Multidisciplinary Healthcare, 13, 681-691.

[17]. Woodward, K. F., Roche, S., & Gonzales, G. (2025). Beyond the pandemic: the relationship between macroeconomic conditions and healthcare worker shortages in the United States. BMC Health Services Research, 25, 637.

[18]. Bluedorn, J., et al. (2023). Gender and employment in the COVID-19 recession: Cross-country evidence on “She-Cessions.” Labour Economics, 81(102308), 1-10. https: //doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2022.102308

[19]. Triana, M. D. C., et al. (2024). Stereotypical perception in management: A review and expansion of role congruity theory. Journal of Management, 50(1), 188-215. https: //doi.org/10.1177/01492063231180836

[20]. Haney, T. J., & Barber, K. (2022). The extreme gendering of COVID-19: Household tasks and division of labour satisfaction during the pandemic. Canadian Review of Sociology, 59(51), 26-47.

[21]. Cukrowska-Torzewska, E., & Matysiak, A. (2020). The motherhood wage penalty: A meta-analysis. Social Science Research, 88-89(102416), 1-19. https: //doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2020.102416

[22]. Müller, C. (2024). The COVID-19 pandemic and firms’ E-learning use: Implications for inequality in training opportunities. Journal for Labour Market Research, 58(23), 1–15. https: //doi.org/10.1186/s12651-024-00382-x

[23]. Zou, Y. (2024). The impact of fiscal stimulus on employment: Evidence from China’s four-trillion RMB package. Economic Modelling, 131(106598), 1-13. https: //doi.org/10.1016/j.econmod.2023.106598

[24]. Dunford, J. A. (2023). Blind resume screening to mitigate bias in the hiring process: The case of the Western Carolina University workforce. Western Carolina University.

[25]. International Telecommunication Union. (2022). Facts and figures 2022: The gender digital divide. https: //www.itu.int/itu-d/reports/statistics/2022/11/24/ff22-the-gender-digital-divide

References

[1]. Tambunan, T. T. H. (2019). The impact of the economic crisis on micro, small, and medium enterprises and their crisis mitigation measures in Southeast Asia with reference to Indonesia. Asia & the Pacific Policy Studies, 6(1), 19-39. https: //doi.org/10.1002/app5.264

[2]. Wullweber, J. (2020). The COVID-19 financial crisis, global financial instabilities and transformations in the financial system. In Transformative responses to the crisis. https: //doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3688453

[3]. Marin-Ferrer, M., Vernaccini, L., & Poljansek, K. (2017). INFORM index for risk management: Concept and methodology, version 2017. Publications Office of the European Union. https: //doi.org/10.2760/094023

[4]. Alkan, H. I. (2025). Looking beyond the obvious - Being a childless female employee in Turkish labour market. Humanities & Social Sciences Communications, 12(1), 1-14. https: //doi.org/10.1057/s41599-025-05430-6

[5]. Jessica, C., Mary, W., Pauline, G., & Robyn, G. R. (2025). Lessons learned the hard way: Sharing experiences from female radiologists regarding gender inequality. Current Problems in Diagnostic Radiology, 54(1), 40-44.

[6]. European Union. (2025). National accounts and GDP. https: //ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=National_accounts_and_GDP

[7]. International Labour Organization. (2021). Building forward fairer: Women’s rights to work and at work at the core of the COVID-19 recovery. https: //www.ilo.org/publications/building-forward-fairer-women%E2%80%99s-rights-work-and-work-core-covid-19-recovery

[8]. International Monetary Fund (IMF). (2022). World Economic Outlook, April 2022: War Sets Back the Global Recovery. https: //www.imf.org/zh/Publications/WEO/Issues/2022/04/19/world-economic-outlook-april-2022

[9]. Airoldi, D. M. (2020). Marriott puts thousands on furlough, plans to close hotels. Business Travel News. https: //www.businesstravelnews.com/Global-Covid/Marriott-Puts-Thousands-on-Furlough-Plans-to-Close-Hotels/36037

[10]. Keshavarzi Arshadi, A., Webb, J., Salem, M., et al. (2020). Artificial intelligence for COVID-19 drug discovery and vaccine development. Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence, 3, 65.

[11]. Bridges, W. P. (1980). Industry marginality and female employment: A new appraisal. American Sociological Review, 45(1), 58-75. https: //doi.org/10.2307/2095243

[12]. Heath, R., Bernhardt, A., Borker, G., et al. (2024). Female labour force participation. VoxDevLit, 11(1), 3-30. https: //www.voxdev.org/sites/default/files/2024-04/FemaleLabourForceParticipation_Issue1.pdf

[13]. Karageorge, E. X. (2025). COVID-19 recession is tougher on women. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. https: //www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/2020/beyond-bls/covid-19-recession-is-tougher-on-women.htm

[14]. Ganesan, B., et al. (2021). Impact of Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak quarantine, isolation, and lockdown policies on mental health and suicide. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 12, 565190.

[15]. Huang, A., De la Mora Velasco, E., Marsh, J., & Workman, H. (2021). COVID-19 and the future of work in the hospitality industry. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 97, 102986.

[16]. Alobaid, A. M., Gosling, C. M., Khasawneh, E., McKenna, L., & Williams, B. (2020). Challenges faced by female healthcare professionals in the workforce: A scoping review. Journal of Multidisciplinary Healthcare, 13, 681-691.

[17]. Woodward, K. F., Roche, S., & Gonzales, G. (2025). Beyond the pandemic: the relationship between macroeconomic conditions and healthcare worker shortages in the United States. BMC Health Services Research, 25, 637.

[18]. Bluedorn, J., et al. (2023). Gender and employment in the COVID-19 recession: Cross-country evidence on “She-Cessions.” Labour Economics, 81(102308), 1-10. https: //doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2022.102308

[19]. Triana, M. D. C., et al. (2024). Stereotypical perception in management: A review and expansion of role congruity theory. Journal of Management, 50(1), 188-215. https: //doi.org/10.1177/01492063231180836

[20]. Haney, T. J., & Barber, K. (2022). The extreme gendering of COVID-19: Household tasks and division of labour satisfaction during the pandemic. Canadian Review of Sociology, 59(51), 26-47.

[21]. Cukrowska-Torzewska, E., & Matysiak, A. (2020). The motherhood wage penalty: A meta-analysis. Social Science Research, 88-89(102416), 1-19. https: //doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2020.102416

[22]. Müller, C. (2024). The COVID-19 pandemic and firms’ E-learning use: Implications for inequality in training opportunities. Journal for Labour Market Research, 58(23), 1–15. https: //doi.org/10.1186/s12651-024-00382-x

[23]. Zou, Y. (2024). The impact of fiscal stimulus on employment: Evidence from China’s four-trillion RMB package. Economic Modelling, 131(106598), 1-13. https: //doi.org/10.1016/j.econmod.2023.106598

[24]. Dunford, J. A. (2023). Blind resume screening to mitigate bias in the hiring process: The case of the Western Carolina University workforce. Western Carolina University.

[25]. International Telecommunication Union. (2022). Facts and figures 2022: The gender digital divide. https: //www.itu.int/itu-d/reports/statistics/2022/11/24/ff22-the-gender-digital-divide

Cite this article

Zhang,Y. (2025). From Financial Crisis to Pandemic: Gender Discrimination and Employment Inequality among Female Workers. Advances in Economics, Management and Political Sciences,226,64-71.

Data availability

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study will be available from the authors upon reasonable request.

About volume

Volume title: Proceedings of ICEMGD 2025 Symposium: Innovating in Management and Economic Development

ISBN: 978-1-80590-345-1(Print) / 978-1-80590-346-8(Online)
Editor: Florian Marcel Nuţă Nuţă, Ahsan Ali Ashraf
Conference website: https://2025.icemgd.org/Lahore.html
Conference date: 23 September 2025
Series: Advances in Economics, Management and Political Sciences
Volume number: Vol.226
ISSN: 2754-1169(Print) / 2754-1177(Online)

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