Breaking the Bias: A Multidisciplinary Approach to Addressing Gender-based Sports Stigmatization on Social Media
Research Article
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Breaking the Bias: A Multidisciplinary Approach to Addressing Gender-based Sports Stigmatization on Social Media

Jingyu Liang 1* Jingzhu Pan 2
1 University College London
2 Macau University of Science and Technology
*Corresponding author: 544420723@qq.com
Published on 9 September 2025
Journal Cover
AEMPS Vol.215
ISSN (Print): 2754-1177
ISSN (Online): 2754-1169
ISBN (Print): 978-1-80590-357-4
ISBN (Online): 978-1-80590-358-1
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Abstract

In the digital age, the rise of social media has significantly increased global users, with China showing a major surge. The pandemic accelerated the global golf population growth, especially among young golfers, who still face stigmatization in China due to golf's historical 'luxury' image. Understanding the motivations behind this stigmatization can offer valuable insights. This study uses grounded theory and data mining to analyze 22,354 comments from Xiaohongshu, a Gen Z and female-dominated Chinese social media platform. It constructs a novel stigmatization theory model, integrating psychology, media studies, and sociology to explore the cognitive-affection-behavior chain driving stigmatization. Our findings reveal that social media's anonymity, platform algorithms, and societal biases against both golf and Chinese women amplify individual stigmatization, transforming it into broader group and public stigmas. This research not only enriches the study of sports stigmatization but also offers practical strategies to combat it, particularly by promoting golf among Chinese youth and reshaping public perceptions.

Keywords:

Gender-based Sport Stigmatization, Social Media Analysis, Golf Promotion in China, Ground Theory.

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Liang,J.;Pan,J. (2025). Breaking the Bias: A Multidisciplinary Approach to Addressing Gender-based Sports Stigmatization on Social Media. Advances in Economics, Management and Political Sciences,215,107-120.

References

[1]. Kemp, S. (2023, February 9). Digital 2023: China [Report]. DataReportal. https: //datareportal.com/reports/digital-2023-china

[2]. Xinhua News. (2023, August 28). China's internet users total 1.079 bln with vibrant digital infrastructure, internet app growth. State Council of the People's Republic of China.

[3]. Toffoletti, K., Ahmad, N., & Thorpe, H. (2022). "Critical Encounters with Social Media in Women's Sport and Physical Culture, " in Sport, Social Media, and Digital Technology (Vol. 15), Emerald Publishing Limited.

[4]. AlAfnan, M. A. (2024). Social Media Personalities in Asia: Demographics, Platform Preferences, and Behavior Based Analysis. Studies in Media and Communication, n. pag.

[5]. Kahneman, D. (2011). Thinking, fast and slow. Farrar, Straus and Giroux.

[6]. Link, B. G., & Phelan, J. C. (2001). Conceptualizing stigma. Annual Review of Sociology, 27(1), 363-385. https: //doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.27.1.363

[7]. Jones et al.(1984). Social stigma: The psychology of marked relationships. W.H. Freeman and Company.

[8]. Ahmedani, B. K. (2011). Mental Health Stigma: Society, Individuals, and the Profession. Journal of Social Work Values and Ethics, 8(2), 41-416. PMID: 22211117; PMCID: PMC3248273.

[9]. Major, B., Dovidio, J. F., Link, B. G., & Calabrese, S. K. (2020). Theoretical Models to Understand Stigma of Mental Illness. In The Cambridge Handbook of Stigma and Mental Health. Cambridge University Press. Available from [https: //www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-handbook-of-stigma-and-mental-health/theoretical-models-to-understand-stigma-of-mental-illness/8437D63FA64D4C148789EB4A7DBED600](https: //www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-handbook-of-stigma-and-mental-health/theoretical-models-to-understand-stigma-of-mental-illness/8437D63FA64D4C148789EB4A7DBED600)

[10]. Glossenger, D., & Cowell, A. (2021). Equity and Ability Grouping: A Study of Whole-School Practices and Reflections on Vocal Music Education.

[11]. Manzo, G. (2023). Stigmatization in Mental Health: A Systematic Review. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 84(2), 8969461. [https: //www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8969461/](https: //www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8969461/)

[12]. Gray, D. M., & Smoczynski, A. (2024). Stigma: Advances in Theory and Research. Advances in Social Work, 24(1), 235349425. Available from [https: //www.researchgate.net/publication/235349425_Stigma_Advances_in_Theory_and_Research](https: //www.researchgate.net/publication/235349425_Stigma_Advances_in_Theory_and_Research)

[13]. National Research Council (US) Committee on the Science of Adolescence. (2011). The Science of Adolescent Risk-Taking: Workshop Report. National Academies Press (US). Available from [https: //www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK384923/](https: //www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK384923/)

[14]. Link, B. G., & Phelan, J. C. (2013). Labeling and Stigma. Handbook of the Sociology of Mental Health, 525–541. [https: //doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-4276-5_25](https: //www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3666955/)

[15]. Pescosolido, B. A., & Martin, J. K. (2019). The Stigma Complex. BMC Medicine, 17(1), 216. [https: //doi.org/10.1186/s12916-019-1271-3](https: //bmcmedicine.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12916-019-1271-3)

[16]. Quinn, D. M., & Earnshaw, V. A. (2011). Understanding Conceptualizations of Stigma in Conditions with Concealable Stigmatized Identities. Journal of Social Issues, 67(3), 493–507. [https: //doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.2011.01712.x](https: //www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3248273/)

[17]. Chaudoir, S. R., Earnshaw, V. A., & Andel, S. (2023). Disentangling the Psychological Impact of Stigma. Frontiers in Psychology, 14, 8900470. [https: //doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.8900470](https: //www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8900470/)

[18]. Ge Ying. (2024). User Experience Evaluation of Online Platforms: A Case Study of Xiaohongshu APP. Statistics and Applications, 13(2).

[19]. Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (1998). Basics of Qualitative Research: Grounded Theory Procedures and Techniques (2nd ed.). Sage Publications.

[20]. Guan Jian. (2007). The Conceptual Development of Stigma and the Construction of a Multidimensional Model.. Nankai Journal (Philosophy, Literature and Social Science Edition), (5)

[21]. Straton, N. (2022). COVID vaccine stigma: Detecting stigma across social media platforms with computational model based on deep learning. Applied Intelligence (Dordrecht), 1-26. Advance online publication. https: //doi.org/10.1007/s10489-022-04311-8

[22]. Tariuni, K., Musa, D. T., & Gaffar, Z. H. (2022). Komunitas Fujoshi di Pontianak dan Stigma Identitas Gender yang Melekat dalam Lingkungan Masyarakat. Balale' : Jurnal Antropologi, n. pag.

[23]. Rathje, S., Robertson, C., Brady, W. J., & Van Bavel, J. J. (2023). People Think That Social Media Platforms Do (but Should Not) Amplify Divisive Content. Perspectives on Psychological Science. Advance online publication. https: //doi.org/10.1177/17456916231190392

References

[1]. Kemp, S. (2023, February 9). Digital 2023: China [Report]. DataReportal. https: //datareportal.com/reports/digital-2023-china

[2]. Xinhua News. (2023, August 28). China's internet users total 1.079 bln with vibrant digital infrastructure, internet app growth. State Council of the People's Republic of China.

[3]. Toffoletti, K., Ahmad, N., & Thorpe, H. (2022). "Critical Encounters with Social Media in Women's Sport and Physical Culture, " in Sport, Social Media, and Digital Technology (Vol. 15), Emerald Publishing Limited.

[4]. AlAfnan, M. A. (2024). Social Media Personalities in Asia: Demographics, Platform Preferences, and Behavior Based Analysis. Studies in Media and Communication, n. pag.

[5]. Kahneman, D. (2011). Thinking, fast and slow. Farrar, Straus and Giroux.

[6]. Link, B. G., & Phelan, J. C. (2001). Conceptualizing stigma. Annual Review of Sociology, 27(1), 363-385. https: //doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.27.1.363

[7]. Jones et al.(1984). Social stigma: The psychology of marked relationships. W.H. Freeman and Company.

[8]. Ahmedani, B. K. (2011). Mental Health Stigma: Society, Individuals, and the Profession. Journal of Social Work Values and Ethics, 8(2), 41-416. PMID: 22211117; PMCID: PMC3248273.

[9]. Major, B., Dovidio, J. F., Link, B. G., & Calabrese, S. K. (2020). Theoretical Models to Understand Stigma of Mental Illness. In The Cambridge Handbook of Stigma and Mental Health. Cambridge University Press. Available from [https: //www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-handbook-of-stigma-and-mental-health/theoretical-models-to-understand-stigma-of-mental-illness/8437D63FA64D4C148789EB4A7DBED600](https: //www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-handbook-of-stigma-and-mental-health/theoretical-models-to-understand-stigma-of-mental-illness/8437D63FA64D4C148789EB4A7DBED600)

[10]. Glossenger, D., & Cowell, A. (2021). Equity and Ability Grouping: A Study of Whole-School Practices and Reflections on Vocal Music Education.

[11]. Manzo, G. (2023). Stigmatization in Mental Health: A Systematic Review. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 84(2), 8969461. [https: //www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8969461/](https: //www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8969461/)

[12]. Gray, D. M., & Smoczynski, A. (2024). Stigma: Advances in Theory and Research. Advances in Social Work, 24(1), 235349425. Available from [https: //www.researchgate.net/publication/235349425_Stigma_Advances_in_Theory_and_Research](https: //www.researchgate.net/publication/235349425_Stigma_Advances_in_Theory_and_Research)

[13]. National Research Council (US) Committee on the Science of Adolescence. (2011). The Science of Adolescent Risk-Taking: Workshop Report. National Academies Press (US). Available from [https: //www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK384923/](https: //www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK384923/)

[14]. Link, B. G., & Phelan, J. C. (2013). Labeling and Stigma. Handbook of the Sociology of Mental Health, 525–541. [https: //doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-4276-5_25](https: //www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3666955/)

[15]. Pescosolido, B. A., & Martin, J. K. (2019). The Stigma Complex. BMC Medicine, 17(1), 216. [https: //doi.org/10.1186/s12916-019-1271-3](https: //bmcmedicine.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12916-019-1271-3)

[16]. Quinn, D. M., & Earnshaw, V. A. (2011). Understanding Conceptualizations of Stigma in Conditions with Concealable Stigmatized Identities. Journal of Social Issues, 67(3), 493–507. [https: //doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.2011.01712.x](https: //www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3248273/)

[17]. Chaudoir, S. R., Earnshaw, V. A., & Andel, S. (2023). Disentangling the Psychological Impact of Stigma. Frontiers in Psychology, 14, 8900470. [https: //doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.8900470](https: //www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8900470/)

[18]. Ge Ying. (2024). User Experience Evaluation of Online Platforms: A Case Study of Xiaohongshu APP. Statistics and Applications, 13(2).

[19]. Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (1998). Basics of Qualitative Research: Grounded Theory Procedures and Techniques (2nd ed.). Sage Publications.

[20]. Guan Jian. (2007). The Conceptual Development of Stigma and the Construction of a Multidimensional Model.. Nankai Journal (Philosophy, Literature and Social Science Edition), (5)

[21]. Straton, N. (2022). COVID vaccine stigma: Detecting stigma across social media platforms with computational model based on deep learning. Applied Intelligence (Dordrecht), 1-26. Advance online publication. https: //doi.org/10.1007/s10489-022-04311-8

[22]. Tariuni, K., Musa, D. T., & Gaffar, Z. H. (2022). Komunitas Fujoshi di Pontianak dan Stigma Identitas Gender yang Melekat dalam Lingkungan Masyarakat. Balale' : Jurnal Antropologi, n. pag.

[23]. Rathje, S., Robertson, C., Brady, W. J., & Van Bavel, J. J. (2023). People Think That Social Media Platforms Do (but Should Not) Amplify Divisive Content. Perspectives on Psychological Science. Advance online publication. https: //doi.org/10.1177/17456916231190392

Cite this article

Liang,J.;Pan,J. (2025). Breaking the Bias: A Multidisciplinary Approach to Addressing Gender-based Sports Stigmatization on Social Media. Advances in Economics, Management and Political Sciences,215,107-120.

Data availability

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study will be available from the authors upon reasonable request.

About volume

Volume title: Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Financial Technology and Business Analysis

ISBN: 978-1-80590-357-4(Print) / 978-1-80590-358-1(Online)
Editor: Lukáš Vartiak
Conference website: https://2025.icftba.org/
Conference date: 12 December 2025
Series: Advances in Economics, Management and Political Sciences
Volume number: Vol.215
ISSN: 2754-1169(Print) / 2754-1177(Online)

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