Bridging the Last Mile? Evaluating the Role of Shared E-scooters in Australian Public Transport
Research Article
Open Access
CC BY

Bridging the Last Mile? Evaluating the Role of Shared E-scooters in Australian Public Transport

Yuehan Zhao 1*
1 The University of Sydney
*Corresponding author: yzha0864@uni.sydney.edu.au
Published on 11 November 2025
Journal Cover
ACE Vol.205
ISSN (Print): 2755-273X
ISSN (Online): 2755-2721
ISBN (Print): 978-1-80590-521-9
ISBN (Online): 978-1-80590-522-6
Download Cover

Abstract

This paper assesses whether shared e-scooters can address last-mile transport in Australian cities through a comparative case study of Sydney (NSW) and Brisbane (QLD). Using state legislation, municipal bylaws, licensing materials, and relevant literature, it analyses policy and regulation, service scale, public-transport integration, safety and perception, and long-term feasibility. Findings show that governance framing is decisive. In Sydney, short, tightly bounded trials and a ban on private devices limit scale, weaken first/last-mile links, and constrain evidence. In Brisbane, citywide operation under multi-year licences, backed by clear state rules and municipal controls, normalises use and supports iterative, data-led regulation, improving prospects for integration. This contrast highlights how differing legal and administrative approaches can produce distinct outcomes in service availability and public Distributional outcomes hinge on explicit spatial and pricing obligations; without them, access clusters in well-served areas. Station-area coverage targets, standardised data sharing and enforcement, and equitable pricing adapted to local conditions are recommended. The study highlights how legal and regulatory design shapes micromobility outcomes, offering lessons for sustainable urban transport policy.

Keywords:

Micromobility, E-scooters, Last-mile connectivity, Urban transport policy

View PDF
Zhao,Y. (2025). Bridging the Last Mile? Evaluating the Role of Shared E-scooters in Australian Public Transport. Applied and Computational Engineering,205,52-62.

References

[1]. Tilahun, N., Thakuriah, P. (Vonu), Li, M., & Keita, Y. (2016). Transit use and the work commute: Analyzing the role of last mile issues. Journal of Transport Geography, 54, 359–368. https: //doi.org/10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2016.06.021

[2]. Zuo, T., Wei, H., Chen, N., & Zhang, C. (2020). First-and-last mile solution via bicycling to improving transit accessibility and advancing transportation equity. Cities, 99, 102614. https: //doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2020.102614

[3]. Shaheen, S., & Chan, N. (2016). Mobility and the Sharing Economy: Potential to Facilitate the First- and Last-Mile Public Transit Connections. Built Environment, 42(4), 573–588. https: //doi.org/10.2148/benv.42.4.573

[4]. Welcome To Zscaler Directory Authentication. (2025). Www.li.me. https: //www.li.me/fr-be/locations/apac

[5]. Lazarus, J., Pourquier, J. C., Feng, F., Hammel, H., & Shaheen, S. (2020). Micromobility evolution and expansion: Understanding how docked and dockless bikesharing models complement and compete – A case study of San Francisco. Journal of Transport Geography, 84, 102620. https: //doi.org/10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2019.102620

[6]. Liu, L., & Miller, H. J. (2022). Measuring the impacts of dockless micro-mobility services on public transit accessibility. Computers, Environment and Urban Systems, 98, 101885. https: //doi.org/10.1016/j.compenvurbsys.2022.101885

[7]. Cao, Z., Zhang, X., Chua, K., Yu, H., & Zhao, J. (2021). E-scooter sharing to serve short-distance transit trips: A Singapore case. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 147, 177–196. https: //doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2021.03.004

[8]. Şengül, B., & Mostofi, H. (2021). Impacts of E-Micromobility on the Sustainability of Urban Transportation—A Systematic Review. Applied Sciences, 11(13), 5851. https: //doi.org/10.3390/app11135851

[9]. Guo, Y., & Zhang, Y. (2021). Understanding factors influencing shared e-scooter usage and its impact on auto mode substitution. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 99, 102991. https: //doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2021.102991

[10]. Field, C., & Jon, I. (2021). E-Scooters: A New Smart Mobility Option? The Case of Brisbane, Australia. Planning Theory & Practice, 22(3), 1–29. https: //doi.org/10.1080/14649357.2021.1919746

[11]. Yin, Z., Rybarczyk, G., Zheng, A., Su, L., Sun, B., & Yan, X. (2024). Shared micromobility as a first- and last-mile transit solution? Spatiotemporal insights from a novel dataset. Journal of Transport Geography, 114, 103778–103778. https: //doi.org/10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2023.103778

[12]. Mohiuddin, H. (2021). Planning for the First and Last Mile: A Review of Practices at Selected Transit Agencies in the United States. Sustainability, 13(4), 2222. https: //doi.org/10.3390/su13042222

[13]. Lu, Y., Kimpton, A., Carlo Giacomo Prato, Sipe, N., & Corcoran, J. (2023). First and last mile travel mode choice: A systematic review of the empirical literature. International Journal of Sustainable Transportation, 1–14. https: //doi.org/10.1080/15568318.2023.2218285

[14]. Oeschger, G., Caulfield, B., & Carroll, P. (2023). Investigating the role of micromobility for first- and last-mile connections to public transport. Journal of Cycling and Micromobility Research, 1, 100001–100001. https: //doi.org/10.1016/j.jcmr.2023.100001

[15]. Corporate Partnership Board CPB Safe Micromobility Corporate Partnership Board Report. (n.d.). https: //www.itf-oecd.org/sites/default/files/docs/safe-micromobility_1.pdf

[16]. Huo, J., Yang, H., Li, C., Zheng, R., Yang, L., & Wen, Y. (2021). Influence of the built environment on E-scooter sharing ridership: A tale of five cities. Journal of Transport Geography, 93, 103084. https: //doi.org/10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2021.103084

[17]. Latinopoulos, C., Patrier, A., & Sivakumar, A. (2021). Planning for e-scooter use in metropolitan cities: A case study for Paris. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 100, 103037. https: //doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2021.103037

[18]. Pande, D., & Taeihagh, A. (2021). The Governance Conundrum of Powered Micromobility Devices: An In-Depth Case Study from Singapore. Sustainability, 13(11), 6202. https: //doi.org/10.3390/su13116202

[19]. Greaves, S., Beck, M., Rose, G., & Crane, M. (2024). Public views on legalising e-scooters: Insights from a Sydney case study. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 192, 104364. https: //doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2024.104364

[20]. Atfield, C. (2024, April 8). Scooter numbers to climb as Lime prepares Brisbane return. Brisbane Times. https: //www.brisbanetimes.com.au/national/queensland/scooter-numbers-to-climb-as-lime-prepares-brisbane-return-20240408-p5fi6t.html

[21]. Haworth, N., Schramm, A., & Twisk, D. (2021a). Changes in shared and private e-scooter use in Brisbane, Australia and their safety implications. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 163, 106451. https: //doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2021.106451

[22]. Transport for NSW. (2025, February 3). NSW Shared E-scooter Trial Program. NSW Government. https: //www.nsw.gov.au/driving-boating-and-transport/bikes-e-bikes-e-scooters/e-micromobility-action-plan/related-projects-programs/shared-e-scooter-trial

[23]. Personal Mobility Device Safety Action Plan (Department of Transport and Main Roads). (n.d.). Sc-Tmrwcmgr-Cd.azurewebsites.net. https: //www.tmr.qld.gov.au/safety/road-safety/road-safety-strategy-and-action-plans/personal-mobility-device-plans/personal-mobility-device-safety-action-plan-summary/personal-mobility-device-safety-action-plan

[24]. Transport for NSW. (2023, April 26). E-scooters. Www.transport.nsw.gov.au. https: //www.transport.nsw.gov.au/roadsafety/road-users/e-scooters

[25]. Visontay, E. (2025, May 13). NSW to legalise e-scooters on paths and roads up to 20km/h for those over 16. The Guardian; The Guardian. https: //www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2025/may/13/nsw-to-legalise-e-scooters-over-16

[26]. Draft key e-scooter rules. (2024). https: //www.nsw.gov.au/sites/default/files/noindex/2025-02/Draft-key-e-scooter-rules-October-2024.pdf

[27]. Hinchliffe, J. (2024, September 2). Brisbane e-scooter operator Beam loses licence over alleged breach of daily cap. The Guardian; The Guardian. https: //www.theguardian.com/australia-news/article/2024/sep/02/beam-e-scooters-brisbane-loses-licence-daily-cap

[28]. NSW Shared E-Scooter Trials: Program Report Transport for NSW NSW Shared E-Scooter Trials: Program Report/e-scooters Credit: Shared E-scooter Trials, Transport for NSW NSW Shared E-Scooter Trials: Program Report Transport for NSW 2 Acknowledgement of Country. (2025).

[29]. Get the facts. (2022, March 4). StreetSmarts - Queensland Government. https: //streetsmarts.initiatives.qld.gov.au/pmd/get-the-facts/

[30]. Trial is scooting along. (2025). Nsw.gov.au. https: //www.midcoast.nsw.gov.au/Your-Council/Our-news/News-releases/Trial-is-scooting-along

References

[1]. Tilahun, N., Thakuriah, P. (Vonu), Li, M., & Keita, Y. (2016). Transit use and the work commute: Analyzing the role of last mile issues. Journal of Transport Geography, 54, 359–368. https: //doi.org/10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2016.06.021

[2]. Zuo, T., Wei, H., Chen, N., & Zhang, C. (2020). First-and-last mile solution via bicycling to improving transit accessibility and advancing transportation equity. Cities, 99, 102614. https: //doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2020.102614

[3]. Shaheen, S., & Chan, N. (2016). Mobility and the Sharing Economy: Potential to Facilitate the First- and Last-Mile Public Transit Connections. Built Environment, 42(4), 573–588. https: //doi.org/10.2148/benv.42.4.573

[4]. Welcome To Zscaler Directory Authentication. (2025). Www.li.me. https: //www.li.me/fr-be/locations/apac

[5]. Lazarus, J., Pourquier, J. C., Feng, F., Hammel, H., & Shaheen, S. (2020). Micromobility evolution and expansion: Understanding how docked and dockless bikesharing models complement and compete – A case study of San Francisco. Journal of Transport Geography, 84, 102620. https: //doi.org/10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2019.102620

[6]. Liu, L., & Miller, H. J. (2022). Measuring the impacts of dockless micro-mobility services on public transit accessibility. Computers, Environment and Urban Systems, 98, 101885. https: //doi.org/10.1016/j.compenvurbsys.2022.101885

[7]. Cao, Z., Zhang, X., Chua, K., Yu, H., & Zhao, J. (2021). E-scooter sharing to serve short-distance transit trips: A Singapore case. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 147, 177–196. https: //doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2021.03.004

[8]. Şengül, B., & Mostofi, H. (2021). Impacts of E-Micromobility on the Sustainability of Urban Transportation—A Systematic Review. Applied Sciences, 11(13), 5851. https: //doi.org/10.3390/app11135851

[9]. Guo, Y., & Zhang, Y. (2021). Understanding factors influencing shared e-scooter usage and its impact on auto mode substitution. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 99, 102991. https: //doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2021.102991

[10]. Field, C., & Jon, I. (2021). E-Scooters: A New Smart Mobility Option? The Case of Brisbane, Australia. Planning Theory & Practice, 22(3), 1–29. https: //doi.org/10.1080/14649357.2021.1919746

[11]. Yin, Z., Rybarczyk, G., Zheng, A., Su, L., Sun, B., & Yan, X. (2024). Shared micromobility as a first- and last-mile transit solution? Spatiotemporal insights from a novel dataset. Journal of Transport Geography, 114, 103778–103778. https: //doi.org/10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2023.103778

[12]. Mohiuddin, H. (2021). Planning for the First and Last Mile: A Review of Practices at Selected Transit Agencies in the United States. Sustainability, 13(4), 2222. https: //doi.org/10.3390/su13042222

[13]. Lu, Y., Kimpton, A., Carlo Giacomo Prato, Sipe, N., & Corcoran, J. (2023). First and last mile travel mode choice: A systematic review of the empirical literature. International Journal of Sustainable Transportation, 1–14. https: //doi.org/10.1080/15568318.2023.2218285

[14]. Oeschger, G., Caulfield, B., & Carroll, P. (2023). Investigating the role of micromobility for first- and last-mile connections to public transport. Journal of Cycling and Micromobility Research, 1, 100001–100001. https: //doi.org/10.1016/j.jcmr.2023.100001

[15]. Corporate Partnership Board CPB Safe Micromobility Corporate Partnership Board Report. (n.d.). https: //www.itf-oecd.org/sites/default/files/docs/safe-micromobility_1.pdf

[16]. Huo, J., Yang, H., Li, C., Zheng, R., Yang, L., & Wen, Y. (2021). Influence of the built environment on E-scooter sharing ridership: A tale of five cities. Journal of Transport Geography, 93, 103084. https: //doi.org/10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2021.103084

[17]. Latinopoulos, C., Patrier, A., & Sivakumar, A. (2021). Planning for e-scooter use in metropolitan cities: A case study for Paris. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 100, 103037. https: //doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2021.103037

[18]. Pande, D., & Taeihagh, A. (2021). The Governance Conundrum of Powered Micromobility Devices: An In-Depth Case Study from Singapore. Sustainability, 13(11), 6202. https: //doi.org/10.3390/su13116202

[19]. Greaves, S., Beck, M., Rose, G., & Crane, M. (2024). Public views on legalising e-scooters: Insights from a Sydney case study. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 192, 104364. https: //doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2024.104364

[20]. Atfield, C. (2024, April 8). Scooter numbers to climb as Lime prepares Brisbane return. Brisbane Times. https: //www.brisbanetimes.com.au/national/queensland/scooter-numbers-to-climb-as-lime-prepares-brisbane-return-20240408-p5fi6t.html

[21]. Haworth, N., Schramm, A., & Twisk, D. (2021a). Changes in shared and private e-scooter use in Brisbane, Australia and their safety implications. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 163, 106451. https: //doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2021.106451

[22]. Transport for NSW. (2025, February 3). NSW Shared E-scooter Trial Program. NSW Government. https: //www.nsw.gov.au/driving-boating-and-transport/bikes-e-bikes-e-scooters/e-micromobility-action-plan/related-projects-programs/shared-e-scooter-trial

[23]. Personal Mobility Device Safety Action Plan (Department of Transport and Main Roads). (n.d.). Sc-Tmrwcmgr-Cd.azurewebsites.net. https: //www.tmr.qld.gov.au/safety/road-safety/road-safety-strategy-and-action-plans/personal-mobility-device-plans/personal-mobility-device-safety-action-plan-summary/personal-mobility-device-safety-action-plan

[24]. Transport for NSW. (2023, April 26). E-scooters. Www.transport.nsw.gov.au. https: //www.transport.nsw.gov.au/roadsafety/road-users/e-scooters

[25]. Visontay, E. (2025, May 13). NSW to legalise e-scooters on paths and roads up to 20km/h for those over 16. The Guardian; The Guardian. https: //www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2025/may/13/nsw-to-legalise-e-scooters-over-16

[26]. Draft key e-scooter rules. (2024). https: //www.nsw.gov.au/sites/default/files/noindex/2025-02/Draft-key-e-scooter-rules-October-2024.pdf

[27]. Hinchliffe, J. (2024, September 2). Brisbane e-scooter operator Beam loses licence over alleged breach of daily cap. The Guardian; The Guardian. https: //www.theguardian.com/australia-news/article/2024/sep/02/beam-e-scooters-brisbane-loses-licence-daily-cap

[28]. NSW Shared E-Scooter Trials: Program Report Transport for NSW NSW Shared E-Scooter Trials: Program Report/e-scooters Credit: Shared E-scooter Trials, Transport for NSW NSW Shared E-Scooter Trials: Program Report Transport for NSW 2 Acknowledgement of Country. (2025).

[29]. Get the facts. (2022, March 4). StreetSmarts - Queensland Government. https: //streetsmarts.initiatives.qld.gov.au/pmd/get-the-facts/

[30]. Trial is scooting along. (2025). Nsw.gov.au. https: //www.midcoast.nsw.gov.au/Your-Council/Our-news/News-releases/Trial-is-scooting-along

Cite this article

Zhao,Y. (2025). Bridging the Last Mile? Evaluating the Role of Shared E-scooters in Australian Public Transport. Applied and Computational Engineering,205,52-62.

Data availability

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study will be available from the authors upon reasonable request.

About volume

Volume title: Proceedings of CONF-MCEE 2026 Symposium: Geomaterials and Environmental Engineering

ISBN: 978-1-80590-521-9(Print) / 978-1-80590-522-6(Online)
Editor: Ömer Burak İSTANBULLU, Manoj Khandelwal
Conference website: https://www.confmcee.org/mounthelen.html
Conference date: 21 January 2026
Series: Applied and Computational Engineering
Volume number: Vol.205
ISSN: 2755-2721(Print) / 2755-273X(Online)

© 2024 by the author(s). Licensee EWA Publishing, Oxford, UK. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license. Authors who publish this series agree to the following terms:

1. Authors retain copyright and grant the series right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgment of the work's authorship and initial publication in this series.

2. Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the series's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgment of its initial publication in this series.

3. Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work (See Open access policy for details).

For authors
For editors
For reviewers

Cookies are used by this site.
Copyright © 2024 EWA Publishing, its licensors, and contributors. All rights reserved, including text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.