The production of commodified sacred space: a comparative study of Buddhist temples and consumer culture in Nepal, China, and Japan
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The production of commodified sacred space: a comparative study of Buddhist temples and consumer culture in Nepal, China, and Japan

Zichen Xu 1*
1 Shanghai World Foreign Language Academy
*Corresponding author: xuzichencharles887@gmail.com
Published on 3 September 2025
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ASBR Vol.16 Issue 7
ISSN (Print): 2753-7110
ISSN (Online): 2753-7102
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Abstract

Drawing on a multi-sited ethnographic fieldwork conducted between July 2024 and January 2025 and Henri Lefebvre's spatial theory, the analysis uncovers distinct strategies that Buddhist temples across Nepal, China, and Japan adopt to transform sacred space: community-embedded space in Nepal, where commerce remains subordinated to local devotional patterns; China's hybrid space, where state management and rapid economic development lead to controlled coexistence of ritual and commercial functions; and lifestyle-branded space in Japan, where commodified programs are packaged into authentic spiritual experience. These spatial strategies are rooted in broader differences in state-religion relations, economic development levels, and the cultural history of the three countries. The study contributes to spatial theory, religious studies, and consumer culture studies by examining how political economy shapes religious space. The study also shows that religious space is not passively commodified but actively reimagined under the pressures of market logic.

Keywords:

Buddhism, sacred space, commodification, consumer culture, spatial theory

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Xu,Z. (2025). The production of commodified sacred space: a comparative study of Buddhist temples and consumer culture in Nepal, China, and Japan. Advances in Social Behavior Research,16(7),26-36.

References

[1]. Lefebvre, H. (1991). The production of space (D. Nicholson-Smith, Trans.).Blackwell.(Original work published 1974)

[2]. Kong, L. (2002). In search of permanent homes: Singapore’s house churches and the politics of space.Urban Studies, 39(9), 1573–1586. https: //doi.org/10.1080/00420980220151761

[3]. Martin, A. K., & Kryst, S. (1998). Encountering Mary: Ritualization and place contagion in postmodernity. InH. J. Nast & S. Pile (Eds.),Places through the body(pp. 207–230). Routledge.

[4]. Holloway, J. (2006). Enchanted spaces: The séance, affect, and geographies of religion.Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 96(1), 182–187. https: //doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8306.2006.00507.x

[5]. Baudrillard, J. (1998). The consumer society: Myths and structures (C. Turner, Trans.).SAGE Publications.(Original work published 1970)

[6]. Bauman, Z. (2007). Consuming life. Polity Press.

[7]. Heelas, P. (2008). Spiritualities of life: New age romanticism and consumptive capitalism. John Wiley & Sons.

[8]. Gellner, D. N. (2023). The spaces of religion: a view from South Asia.Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, 29(3), 553-572.

[9]. Koesel, K. J. (2014). Religion and authoritarianism: Cooperation, conflict, and the consequences. Cambridge University Press.

[10]. Ashiwa, Y., & Wank, D. L. (Eds.). (2020). Making religion, making the state: The politics of religion in modern China. Stanford University Press.

[11]. Borchert, T. A. (2017). Educating monks: Minority Buddhism on China’s southwest border. University of Hawaii Press.

[12]. Nelson, J. K. (2013). Experimental Buddhism: Innovation and activism in contemporary Japan. University of Hawaii Press.

[13]. Berger, P. L. (2014). The many altars of modernity: Toward a paradigm for religion in a pluralist age. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG.

[14]. Aruljothi, C., & Ramaswamy, S. (2019). Pilgrimage tourism: Socio-economic analysis. MJP Publisher.

[15]. Kieschnick, J. (2003). The impact of Buddhism on Chinese material culture. Princeton University Press.

[16]. Gombrich, R. (1988). Theravāda Buddhism: A social history from ancient Benares to modern Colombo. Routledge.

[17]. Ning, W. (2017). Rethinking authenticity in tourism experience. InThe political nature of cultural heritage and tourism(pp. 469-490). Routledge.

References

[1]. Lefebvre, H. (1991). The production of space (D. Nicholson-Smith, Trans.).Blackwell.(Original work published 1974)

[2]. Kong, L. (2002). In search of permanent homes: Singapore’s house churches and the politics of space.Urban Studies, 39(9), 1573–1586. https: //doi.org/10.1080/00420980220151761

[3]. Martin, A. K., & Kryst, S. (1998). Encountering Mary: Ritualization and place contagion in postmodernity. InH. J. Nast & S. Pile (Eds.),Places through the body(pp. 207–230). Routledge.

[4]. Holloway, J. (2006). Enchanted spaces: The séance, affect, and geographies of religion.Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 96(1), 182–187. https: //doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8306.2006.00507.x

[5]. Baudrillard, J. (1998). The consumer society: Myths and structures (C. Turner, Trans.).SAGE Publications.(Original work published 1970)

[6]. Bauman, Z. (2007). Consuming life. Polity Press.

[7]. Heelas, P. (2008). Spiritualities of life: New age romanticism and consumptive capitalism. John Wiley & Sons.

[8]. Gellner, D. N. (2023). The spaces of religion: a view from South Asia.Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, 29(3), 553-572.

[9]. Koesel, K. J. (2014). Religion and authoritarianism: Cooperation, conflict, and the consequences. Cambridge University Press.

[10]. Ashiwa, Y., & Wank, D. L. (Eds.). (2020). Making religion, making the state: The politics of religion in modern China. Stanford University Press.

[11]. Borchert, T. A. (2017). Educating monks: Minority Buddhism on China’s southwest border. University of Hawaii Press.

[12]. Nelson, J. K. (2013). Experimental Buddhism: Innovation and activism in contemporary Japan. University of Hawaii Press.

[13]. Berger, P. L. (2014). The many altars of modernity: Toward a paradigm for religion in a pluralist age. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG.

[14]. Aruljothi, C., & Ramaswamy, S. (2019). Pilgrimage tourism: Socio-economic analysis. MJP Publisher.

[15]. Kieschnick, J. (2003). The impact of Buddhism on Chinese material culture. Princeton University Press.

[16]. Gombrich, R. (1988). Theravāda Buddhism: A social history from ancient Benares to modern Colombo. Routledge.

[17]. Ning, W. (2017). Rethinking authenticity in tourism experience. InThe political nature of cultural heritage and tourism(pp. 469-490). Routledge.

Cite this article

Xu,Z. (2025). The production of commodified sacred space: a comparative study of Buddhist temples and consumer culture in Nepal, China, and Japan. Advances in Social Behavior Research,16(7),26-36.

Data availability

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study will be available from the authors upon reasonable request.

About volume

Journal: Advances in Social Behavior Research

Volume number: Vol.16
Issue number: Issue 7
ISSN: 2753-7102(Print) / 2753-7110(Online)

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